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Black Holes
By: Hazzard
Every day we look out upon the night sky, wondering and dreaming of what lies beyond our planet. The universe that we live in is so diverse and unique, and it interests us to learn about all the variance that lies beyond our grasp. Within this marvel of wonders, our universe holds a mystery that is very difficult to understand because of the complications that arise when trying to examine and explore the principles of space. That mystery happens to be that of the ever elusive, black hole. This essay will hopefully give you the knowledge and understanding of the concepts, properties, and processes involved with the space phenomenon of the black hole. It will describe how a black hole is generally formed, how it functions, and the effects it has on the universe. By definition, a black hole is a region where matter collapses to infinite density, and where, as a result, the curvature of space-time is extreme. Moreover, the intense gravitational field of the black hole prevents any light or other electromagnetic radiation from escaping. But where lies the “point of no return” at which any matter or energy is doomed to disappear from the visible universe? The black hole’s surface is known as the event horizon. Behind this horizon, the inward pull of gravity is overwhelming and no information about the black hole’s interior can escape to the outer universe. Applying the Einstein Field Equations to collapsing stars, Kurt Schwarzschild discovered the critical radius for a given mass at which matter would collapse into an infinitely dense state known as a singularity. At the center of the black hole lies the singularity, where matter is crushed to infinite density, the pull of gravity is infinitely strong, and space-time has infinite curvature. Here it is no longer meaningful to speak of space and time, much less space-time. Jumbled up at the singularity, space and time as we know them cease to exist. At the singularity, the laws of physics break down, including Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity. This is known as Quantum Gravity. In this realm, space and time are broken apart and cause and effect cannot be unraveled. Even today, there is no satisfactory theory for what happens at and beyond the rim of the singularity. A rotating black hole has an interesting feature, called a Cauchy horizon, contained in its interior. The Cauchy horizon is a light-like surface which is the boundary of the domain of validity of the Cauchy problem. What this means is that it is impossible to use the laws of physics to predict the structure of the region after the Cauchy horizon. This breakdown of predictability has led physicists to hypothesize that a singularity should form at the Cauchy horizon, forcing the evolution of the interior to stop at the Cauchy horizon, rendering the idea of a region after it meaningless. Recently this hypothesis was tested in a simple black hole model. A spherically symmetric black hole with a point electric charge has the same essential features as a rotating black hole. It was shown in the spherical model that the Cauchy horizon does develop a scalar curvature singularity. It was also found that the mass of the black hole measured near the Cauchy horizon diverges exponentially as the Cauchy horizon is approached. This led to this phenomena being dubbed “mass inflation.” In order to understand what exactly a black hole is, we must first take a look at the basis for the cause of a black hole. All black holes are formed from the gravitational collapse of a star, usually having a great, massive, core. A star is created when huge, gigantic, gas clouds bind together due to attractive forces and form a hot core, combined from all the energy of the two gas clouds. This energy produced is so great when it first collides, that a nuclear reaction occurs and the gases within the star start to burn continuously. The hydrogen gas is usually the first type of gas consumed in a star and then other gas elements such as carbon, Oxygen, and helium are consumed. This chain reaction fuels the star for millions or billions of years depending upon the amount of gases there are. The star manages to avoid collapsing at this point because of the equilibrium achieved by itself. The gravitational pull from the core of the star is equal to the gravitational pull of the gases forming a type of orbit, however when this equality is broken the star can go into several different stages. Usually if the star is small in mass, most of the gases will be consumed while some of it escapes. This occurs because there is not a tremendous gravitational pull upon those gases and therefore the star weakens and becomes smaller. It is then referred to as a white dwarf. A teaspoonful of white dwarf material would weigh five-and-a-half tons on Earth. Yet a white dwarf star can contract no further; it’s electrons resist further compression by exerting an outward pressure that counteracts gravity. If the star was to have a larger mass, then it might go supernova, such as SN 1987A, meaning that the nuclear fusion within the star simply goes out of control, causing the star to explode. After exploding, a fraction of the star is usually left (if it has not turned into pure gas) and that fraction of the star is known as a neutron star. Neutron stars are so dense, a teaspoonful would weigh 100 million tons on Earth. As heavy as neutron stars are, they too can only contract so far. This is because, as crushed as they are, the neutrons also resist the inward pull of gravity, just as a white dwarf’s electrons do. A black hole is one of the last options that a star may take. If the core of the star is so massive (approximately 6-8 times the mass of the sun) then it is most likely that when the star's gases are almost consumed those gases will collapse inward, forced into the core by the gravitational force laid upon them. The core continues to collapse to a critical size or circumference, or “the point of no return.” After a black hole is created, the gravitational force continues to pull in space debris and other types of matters to help add to the mass of the core, making the hole stronger and more powerful. The most defining quality of a black hole is its emission of gravitational waves so strong they can cause light to bend toward it. Gravitational waves are disturbances in the curvature of space-time caused by the motions of matter. Propagating at (or near) the speed of light, gravitational waves do not travel through space-time as such -- the fabric of space-time itself is oscillating. Though gravitational waves pass straight through matter, their strength weakens as the distance from the original source increases. Although many physicists doubted the existence of gravitational waves, physical evidence was presented when American researchers observed a binary pulsar system that was thought to consist of two neutron stars orbiting each other closely and rapidly. Radio pulses from one of the stars showed that its orbital period was decreasing. In other words, the stars were spiraling toward each other, and by the exact amount predicted if the system were losing energy by radiating gravity waves. Most black holes tend to be in a consistent spinning motion as a result of the gravitational waves. This motion absorbs various matter and spins it within the ring (known as the event horizon) that is formed around the black hole. The matter keeps within the event horizon until it has spun into the center where it is concentrated within the core adding to the mass. Such spinning black holes are known as Kerr black holes. Time runs slower where gravity is stronger. If we look at something next to a black hole, it appears to be in slow motion, and it is. The further into the hole you get, the slower time is running. However, if you are inside, you think that you are moving normally, and everyone outside is moving very fast. Some scientists think that if you enter a black hole the forces inside will transport you to another place in space and time. At the other end would be a white hole, which is theoretically a point in space that just expels matter and energy. Also as a result of the powerful gravitational waves, most black holes orbit around stars, partly due to the fact that they were once stars. This may cause some problems for the neighboring stars, for if a black hole gets powerful enough it may actually pull a star into it and disrupt the orbit of many other stars. The black hole can then grow strong enough (from the star's mass) as to possibly absorb another star. When a black hole absorbs a star, the star is first pulled into the ergosphere, which sweeps all the matter into the event horizon, named for its flat horizontal appearance and because this happens to be the place where mostly all the action within the black hole occurs....
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