Metacognition Essay

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Metacognition has been defined as "having knowledge (cognition) and having understanding, control over, and appropriate use of that knowledge" (Tei and Stewart; as cited by Collins, 1994, p. 2). Wellman (as cited by Berk, 1997) refers to metacognitive knowledge as being made up of four interrelated component : knowledge of self, task, strategies and interaction. The conscious control over and use of these knowledge components emerges through the application of metacognitive skills (or strategies), which include all those methods learners employ to think, study and solve problems (Slavin, 1997).

Unlike some other areas of child development, there is no one theorist credited as heralding and mastering thought on metacognitive development. Rather there have been numerous researchers who have made considerable contributions towards a better understanding of how students' study strategies change as they become older. In their study of students from fifth grade through tertiary education, Fleming et al. (1993) found a developmental trend for increasing differentiation of lower-level (rote memory) strategies and high-level (being-based and self-regulatory) strategies during the high school and university years. Flavell (as cited by Warton, 1998) attributes much of this differentiation to greater metacognitive knowledge of self and task, in that as students mature they are far more accurate in estimating their memory capacity (or changing their strategies and predictions for the next time of they over-estimated). They are also likely to learn the 'gist' of the material (the general idea) as opposed to verbatim memory input, which is common to children up to eight years of age.

Rafoth, Leal and Defabo (1993) also argue that as students develop they are less likely to use rehearsal as a study routine and more likely to acquire "sophisticated learning strategies" (p.26) such as semantic organisation of material, self-testing and elaboration - "Creating visual or verbal connections that add meaning to material" (Rafoth et al, 1993, p.25). With specific attention to self-testing, Loraner (1994) argues that more mature students are more efficient 'monitors' of their learning, and therefore more active, purposeful and flexible in their strategy use.

Hagan, Reed, Wicker, Schallert and Wiehe (1992), have similarly noted the developmental nature of metacognition and study strategies. However, they are cautious not to underrate the considerable importance of effective influences on study activities and their efficacy, highlighting that:

The psychological process of being immersed , or involved in what one is studying has an important relationship to the study outcome … goals and affect that either promote or hinder involvement may influence a student's orientation toward studying (for example, the decision to comprehend vs. memorise)." (p. 2).

Key insights have been made into the relationship between development and study activities, with very distinct changes noted as students mature (Murray-Harvey & Keeves, 1994). While much research has also focused on particular age or schooling level groups with regards to metacognitive, and in particular, study skills strategies - for example, Herman's (1996) study of undergraduate multiple choice test strategies, and William's (1997) research into the study strategies of rural at-risk high school students.

The aim of the present study was to explore the relationship between development and study strategies, particularly changes that occur between the senior school years and studies at university. Specifically this study focused on how students prepare for a test, monitor and review their progress and how dependent this monitoring and awareness of one's cognition is affected by age or subject area.

In line with the reported research it is hypothesized that a university student will make greater use of meaning based and self regulatory study skills than senior high school students, who have less knowledge about the own learning, across all subject areas.

METHOD:

Subjects:

Two males participated in the study. One attends a Catholic High School in a large country town whilst the other attended a Catholic High School in a small Capital city. They are both from similar socio-economic backgrounds. Michael (pseudonym) is 18 years of age and studying for his HSC and achieving above average results. John (pseudonym) is 22 years of age and studying for a Masters degree in Chiropractic Science. He achieves well above average results in his university studies. Although the results John has achieved in his academic career are better it is Michael who comes from a more scholarly background.

Due to the striking similarities between the two subjects in gender, schooling institutions and socio-economic status the two main variables were development and personality differences.

Materials:

The only materials used in the study were a tape recorder for recording the subjects' responses to the researcher's questions (see Appendix 1 and 2), and a pen and paper for recording non-verbal responses.

Design:

A case study was used to gain qualitative research into the relationship between developmental and study variables in two individuals.

Procedure:

After consideration of past research on development and metacognition, subjects were chosen to examine the relevant points of equivalence and contrast between a late high school student's and a university student's study strategies. Both the subjects were well known to the researcher and as such they were spoken with casually regarding their participation in the study. They were informed about the purpose and nature of the study and questions they would b required to answer. They both consented to participate and signed the consent forms (Appendix 3 and 4). A suitable time for interviewing the subjects was arranged.

When the interview started the tape recorder was turned on and the subjects were then questioned regarding their academic careers. A number of questions were posed to investigate their performance on academic tests or exams and their preparation for them.

RESULTS:

Table 1: Comparison between a university student's and a school student's responses on study skills.

Point of Analysis

Michael (High School)

John (University)

Academic Exams discussed

History: Open Book Test ('Cheat Sheet') vs Essays

Maths: Maths problems

Orthopaedics: True / False vs Essays or Short Answer

Chiropractic Skills: Practical

Preparation for exams.

History: Read textbook. Summarize notes

Maths: Read. Learn formulas. Do practice questions.

Orthopaedics: True / False - Read notes. Doesn't try to memorize

Short Answer - Rewrite. Summarize.

Elaborate to make meaning. Read

Chiropractic Skills: Read. Practice.

Does subject use different strategies for different types of exams?

No

Yes

Have subject's study strategies changed over time?

No

Yes

Does subject recognize the role of environment and motivation on study?

Yes

Yes

Does subject have the ability to self-regulate?

Reasonable. Does practice questions for maths but not for interpretative subjects.

Excellent - varies strategies according to progress, time constraints, exam type and subject.

How does subject deal with problems in exams?

Leave it and come back if there is time.

Leaves it and comes back. Knows own recognition patterns (eg if I know it I'll recognize it). Uses other questions as a springboard for thinking about the Question.

Table 1 highlights the significant differences and similarities between the two subjects' metacognitive abilities. John's responses to questions were far more detailed than were Michael's. Michael required far more prompting and gave less precise answers. John on the other hand is well aware of his study strategies and was able and willing to discuss them.

Michael responded that he applied the same study skills to groups of subjects regardless of the examination type whereas John recognized that he studied differently for different exam formats. He said that "psychologically" or perhaps unconsciously he recognizes the difference in the way he studied for a True / False test as opposed to a test which required him to write his own responses. Differing again was the way in which John prepared for a practical examination.

Each of the subjects replied that for theoretical and to some extent John's practical, exams , they read over and summarized their notes and / or their textbooks. Each of them found this process of rewriting and rereading their notes to be the most beneficial to their study. The concept for John's practical exam was the same, to read the notes and then practise them regularly.

Both subjects recognized the role of motivation and environment on their study. Each was aware that they found it difficult to study when there were distracting factors around, such as Michael's example of food, or John's example of noise.

John is far more able to change the way he studies as exams come closer and recognizes the need to do so. He has a good ability to self-regulate in that he is able to reasonably confidently predict his results in examinations.

Discussion

The university student in the study made far more use of meaning based study strategies, than did the high school student, in that he used elaboration techniques and sought for understanding. This result conformed to previous findings.

Both Michael and John, in preparing for a test, wrote their own summaries of notes and textbooks. The physical act of writing, Newell and Winograd (1995) argue is a "powerful means for rethinking, revising and reformulating what one knows". Neither of the subjects though used memory cues such as pneumonics to process information more efficiently as was to be expected from other studies (Warton, 1998).

Both students had similar responses when faced with an exam question they could not answer. Neither dwelled on it, instead moved on. John, in fact, stated that he thought that if he didn't know the answer within 30 seconds then it was unlikely that he was going to remember it. He did though say that he would look for ideas in other questions, or when thinking about other questions, which may give him some ideas for the previous question.

Both John and Michael were aware of using past papers in preparing for an exam as a means for self-testing. Both students also had a good degree of knowledge about what affects their studies. Both recognized the role of motivation on the amount and quality of study performed. The subjects also indicated knowledge of factors which can detract from their study such as noise, tiredness and the availability of food. John indicated that at his level of study, without motivation, the likelihood of failure was increased as it was difficult to do many hours of study each day without some kind of motivation. Hagan (1992) also contended that positive factors such as motivation can influence a students orientation to studying.

The point where the two subjects differed most markedly was in terms of the ability to self-regulate. John appeared to have a far better understanding of his learning and memory, how they worked and how he applied them than did Michael. This difference could have much to do with the differing educative environments the subjects have has access to.

The university environment is far different to the school environment in so much as it requires students to take more control of their own learning and are required to do much of their learning and studying outside of scheduled class times through research and reading. As Williams (1996) states "students who direct their own learning processes tend to be self-reliant and effective … learners".

The limitation of this study is that it includes two subjects of same gender and of similar socio-economic and schooling background. Whilst this allows one to remove certain variables from the hypothesis it is limiting for study's ability to be generalized. And whilst it may appear that there is a large leap between and eighteen and a twenty-two year old in terms of metacognitive ability, this finding will not hold for the entire wider community.

The differences between a high school student, undergraduate, postgraduate and a non-tertiary educated subject would have been interesting. This is in so much as it may have given a better indication of the degree to which tertiary learning in responsible for increased metacognitive awareness. Certainly, though, it does appear from this study and previous findings, that university students have a higher metacognitive awareness and are far more able to self-regulate.

Appendix 1

Transcript of Researcher's Questions and Michael's Responses

Researcher (R): For my university studies in Education., I'm doing some research on study skills. There are no right or wrong answers and the data will remain completely confidential. You can stop the interview at any time if you choose. I'm also going to record the interview so that I can write up your exact words, okay?

Michael (M): Cool.

R: Do you want to sign this consent form for me?

M: Yeah, fine.

R: Okay, now you're eighteen and in Year 12 is that right?

M: Yep

R: The first thing I want you to do is think about an exam that you have had recently. [pause] Can you think of one.

M: Yeah I had one um this week.

R: What was it for?

M: Um, history.

R: How did you go?

M: I dunno, I only did it this week so I … haven't got my marks back yet.

R: How do you think you went?

M: Fantastic, I aced it!

R: Really, what makes you think you aced it?

M: Well we got given the questions before the exam and we were allowed to take a 1 page "cheat sheet" in.

R: Sounds like a cool exam to me! So, ah, what did you do to prepare for it?

M: Well… I looked at each of the questions...

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